Naming Amines

Need help to name amines?

AUS-e-TUTE has just added new resources for naming primary alkanamines (simple amines) using the preferred IUPAC system of nomenclature.
Members should log-in to use the new tutorial, game, test and exam.

Non-members can access a "free-to-view" tutorial at http://www.ausetute.com.au/nampamine.html

AUS-e-TUTE Members have access to thousands of test and exam questions with worked solutions to help you learn how to answer chemistry questions.
Why not find out more information about the benefits of an AUS-e-TUTE Membership at http://www.ausetute.com.au/membership.html

and when you're ready to start improving your chemistry results, join AUS-e-TUTE at http://www.ausetute.com.au/register.html

Aldehydes and Ketones

Help with naming aldehydes and ketones is now available.
AUS-e-TUTE has just uploaded new resources (games, tests, tutorials) to introduce students to the preferred IUPAC system for naming alkanals (simple aldehydes) and alkanones (simple ketones).

AUS-e-TUTE members should log-in to use these new resources: http://www.ausetute.com.au

"Free-to-view" tutorials are currently available for non-members:
Naming Alkanals: http://www.ausetute.com.au/namalkanal.html
Naming Alkanones: http://www.ausetute.com.au/namalkanone.html

Information about membership is available at: http://www.ausetute.com.au/membership.html
and you can join AUS-e-TUTE at http://www.ausetute.com.au/register.html

Aspartame

In September 2014, NutraSweet Company, producer of the artificial sweetener NutraSweet containing aspartame, announced plans to close its aspartame manufacturing business and focus on more profitable lines of sugar substitutes.

Controversy has surrounded the use of aspartame in food since its introduction in the 1980s.

It has been alleged that aspartame is responsible for causing headaches, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, even cancers.

So, what is aspartame and why is it used?

Go to the December 2014 issue of AUS-e-NEWS to find out!

Not a subscriber? Go to http://ausetute.com.au/contact.html to subscribe to our newsletter.

Carboxylic Acid Nomenclature

Learning to name alkanoic acids (simple carboxylic acids) has never been easier thanks to AUS-e-TUTE's latest resources.
AUS-e-TUTE Members should log-in to the Members Only area to access the new tutorial, game and test questions with worked solutions.

Not an AUS-e-TUTE member?
A free tutorial is currently available for evaluation purposes at
http://ausetute.com.au/namalkacid.html

For membership information  go to http://ausetute.com.au/membership.html

To join AUS-e-TUTE go to http://ausetute.com.au/register.html

Sulfuric Acid and Sugar

November 28, 2014, The Canberra Times reported that, "Students were looking on as a teacher conducted an experiment involving sugar and sulfuric acid inside a cabinet when the glass container holding the acid exploded."
The experiment referred to is probably similar to the one shown in the YouTube video below in which concentrated sulfuric acid from a container is poured over sugar in a beaker.

Safety Notes

Sulfuric acid will cause permanent damage if it comes into contact with the eyes or skin. Concentrated solutions of sulfuric acid are extremely corrosive. When sulfuric acid is dissolved in water enough heat is released to make water boil! Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are both toxic gases. Sulfur dioxide gas is toxic in high concentration and is a severe respiratory irritant at lower concentration.Some people, especially those prone to asthma, may be especially sensitive to sulfur dioxide. In the presence of moisture, sulfur dioxide forms an acidic, corrosive solution, which in contact with the skin or eyes may lead to burns.

You will notice that the reaction seems to proceed slowly at first. The reaction mixture turns yellow as the reaction begins. This reaction releases heat, it is said to be an exothermic reaction. The heat produced by the reaction then speeds up the rate of further reactions, and, in the video, this is also accelerated by stirring the mixture.

Table sugar is made up sucrose, molecular formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ and structural formula as shown below:

The reaction between sucrose and sulfuric acid in which solid carbon, water vapour and heat are produced is known as a dehydration reaction  :
C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁(s) → 12C(s) + 11H₂O(g)     ΔH = -918.9 kJ mol^-1 Since the enthalpy change for this reaction is negative, the reaction is exothermic, the reaction gives off heat.
Sulfuric acid molecules have a great affinity for water, that is, sulfuric acid will readily and spontaneously dissolve in water. The water produced by the dehydration of sucrose will then be used to dilute the sulfuric acid that is present. This reaction is also exothermic.
H₂SO₄(l) → H₂SO₄(aq)     ΔH = - kJ mol^-1 The heat produced by this reaction also speeds up the rate of the dehydration reaction and subsequent dilution reactions.
Solid carbon is black, so the "black snake" is just carbon.
But what causes the carbon to "rise up" out of the beaker? This must be the result of evolving gases forcing their way through the mixture as the reaction proceeds. The gases that have been identified as products of this reaction  are:

• carbon monoxide (CO) 66% of the dry gas volume (ie, water has been condensed out)
• carbon dioxide (CO₂) 17% of the dry gas volume
• sulfur dioxide (SO₂) 17% of the dry gas volume

Since sulfuric acid does not oxidize carbon, it is most unlikely that the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases are the result of a reaction between the black snake carbon and sulfuric acid. It is much more reasonable to assume that some of the sucrose undergoes dehydration by the sulfuric acid while some this sucrose (and/or some of the resulting intermediate organic products) is oxidized by the sulfuric acid to produce carbon monoxide gas and carbon dioxide gas. During this process, the sulfuric acid will itself be reduced, resulting in the formation of sulfur dioxide gas.

Reference:
http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/students-treated-after-spill-in-burgmann-anglican-school-sciencbe-laboratory-20141128-11vzad.html

Further Reading:
http://ausetute.com.au/safety.html
http://www.ausetute.com.au/mmcalcul.html  
http://www.ausetute.com.au/moledefs.html
http://www.ausetute.com.au/massmole.html
http://www.ausetute.com.au/concsols.html 
http://www.ausetute.com.au/molarvol.html
http://www.ausetute.com.au/molreact.html

Suggested Study Questions:

1.  Describe two hazards in the YouTube Video.
2.  Describe the safety precautions you would take to minimize the risk of the hazards identified in question 1 above.  
3.  Why do you think the concentrated sulfuric acid is added to the sugar rather than adding the sugar to the container of sulfuric acid?
4.  In a typical experiment, 25 mL of 18 mol L^-1 sulfuric acid is added to 50 g of granulated sugar (sucrose). Calculate the amount in moles of :
   • sucrose used
   • sulfuric acid used
5. Calculate the mass of carbon that could be produced in the typical experiment given in question 4.
6. What assumptions have you made in order to calculate the mass of carbon in question 5?
7. Assume that all 50 g of the sucrose is now oxidized at 25^oC to produce carbon dioxide gas and liquid water. What is the maximum volume of carbon dioxide gas, in litres, that could be produced?
8.  Predict what you think might happen if a 50 g of granulated sugar were quickly added to 25 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid in a 100 mL conical flask that was being swirled continuously.
9. Sucrose is a disaccharide, made up of the monosaccharide glucose and the monosaccharide fructose. Starch and cellulose are both polysaccharides, that is, they are made of repeating glucose monomer units. Predict what would happen if you spilled concentrated sulfuric acid on:
   • a paper cup (cellulose)
   • a piece of raw potato (starch)
   • a cotton shirt (cellulose)
10. Design an experiment that could safely be performed in the laboratory to test your predictions in question 9.
11. Do you think that concentrated sulfuric acid will react with the monosaccharide glucose? Explain your answer using a chemical equation.
12.  Design an experiment that could safely be performed in the laboratory to test your prediction in question 11.

Joules, Kilojoules and Calories

What units are used to measure energy?
Well, that depends on who you are and what you are doing!
If you are a chemistry student, your preferred unit should be joules, but it is likely that you will have to convert between joules and kilojoules quite often.
You might also come across calories and kilocalories as a unit of measurement of energy, and you will then need to convert between these units, and between these and joules and kilojoules.

AUS-e-TUTE has set of resources to help you learn how do these conversions, and to practice your conversion skills.

There is currently a free-to-view tutorial available for evaluation purposes at:

http://www.ausetute.com.au/energyconv.html

The Smell of Freshness

Organic compounds are added to cleaning products and air fresheners to make the air smell fresh and clean. Scientists are taking a closer look at the chemistry behind the use of these compounds to determine whether they are hazardous to human health.

One of the organic compounds that is widely used to provide the "smell of freshness" is a molecule known as limonene (1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexene). The 2-dimensional structural formula of limonene is shown on the right.

Limonene is a colourless liquid at room temperature and pressure and is found naturally in the rind of citrus fruits such as lemons. It is one of the compounds that contributes to the typical odour of citrus fruit.
Commercial quantities of limonene are produced from citrus fruits using centrifugal separation or steam distillation.

Scientists are studying the reactions of limonene closely because the chemical reactions of this molecule with the ozone in the air in your home are the same as the chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere that produce secondary organic aerosols (SOAs), microscopic particles suspended in the air, which contribute to the visible haze known as smog in densely populated areas.

The researchers tested various different scenarios for the production of SOAs in the home from limonene and found that the concentration of SOAs produced was between 5μg/cm³ and 100μg/cm³. The acceptable level of aerosols in breathable air is about 12μg/cm³.

The researchers suggest that the best way to reduce SOAs in your home is to either use unscented cleaners or to keep windows open while cleaning. 

Reference:
Somayeh Youssefi, Michael S. Waring. Transient Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation from Limonene Ozonolysis in Indoor Environments: Impacts of Air Exchange Rates and Initial Concentration Ratios. Environmental Science & Technology, 2014; 48 (14): 7899 DOI: 10.1021/es5009906

Further Reading:
Empirical Formula
Molecular Formula
2-Dimensional Structural Formula
Condensed Structural Formula
Skeletal Structural Formula
Percentage Composition
Parts Per Million (ppm) Concentration
Molar Mass

Suggested Study Questions:

1. Write the molecular formula for limonene.
2. Give the empirical formula for limonene.
3. Calculate the percentage of
   • carbon in a molecule of limonene
   • hydrogen in limonene
4. Draw a skeletal structural formula for limonene.
5. Limonene has the IUPAC name 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexene. Draw the 2-dimensional structural formula for limonene and circle each of the following groups:
   • cyclohexene parent hydrocarbon in red
   • methylethenyl branch in blue
   • methyl branch in black
6. Would you classify limonene as a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon? Explain your answer.
7. Convert these concentrations in μg/cm³ to concentrations in parts per million (ppm)
• 5μg/cm³
• 12μg/cm³
• 100μg/cm³
8. Calculate the molar mass of limonene.
9. Calculate the mass of limonene in 100 L of air at 25^oC and 100 kPa for each of the following concentrations:
   • 5μg/cm³
   • 12μg/cm³
   • 100μg/cm³